Ferdinand Marcos Sr.

         Ferdinand Marcos (born September 11, 1917, Sarrat, Philippines—died September 28, 1989, Honolulu, Hawaii, U.S.) was a Philippine lawyer and politician who, as head of state from 1965 to 1986, established an authoritarian regime in the Philippines that came under criticism for corruption and for its suppression of democratic processes. His son, Ferdinand Marcos, Jr., was elected president of the Philippines in 2022.

         Born in 1917, Marcos attended school in Manila and studied law in the late 1930s at the University of the Philippines, near that city. Tried for the assassination in 1933 of a political opponent of his politician father, Marcos was found guilty in November 1939. But he argued his case on appeal to the Philippine Supreme Court and won acquittal a year later. He became a trial lawyer in Manila. During World War II he was an officer with the Philippine armed forces. Marcos’s later claims of having been a leader in the Filipino guerrilla resistance movement were a central factor in his political success, but U.S. government archives revealed that he actually played little or no part in anti-Japanese activities during 1942–45.

         From 1946 to 1947 Marcos was a technical assistant to Manuel Roxas, the first president of the independent Philippine republic. He was a member of the House of Representatives (1949–59) and of the Senate (1959–65), serving as Senate president (1963–65). In 1965 Marcos, who was a prominent member of the Liberal Party founded by Roxas, broke with it after failing to get his party’s nomination for president. He then ran as the Nationalist Party candidate for president against the Liberal president, Diosdado Macapagal. The campaign was expensive and bitter. Marcos won and was inaugurated as president on December 30, 1965. In 1969 Marcos was reelected, becoming the first Philippine president to serve a second term. During his first term he had made progress in agriculture, industry, and education. Yet his administration was troubled by increasing student demonstrations and violent urban guerrilla activities.

         On September 21, 1972, Marcos imposed martial law on the Philippines. Holding that communist and subversive forces had precipitated the crisis, he acted swiftly; opposition politicians were jailed, and the armed forces became an arm of the regime. Opposed by political leaders—notably Benigno Aquino, Jr., who was jailed and held in detention for almost eight years—Marcos was also criticized by church leaders and others. In the provinces Maoist communists (New People’s Army) and Muslim separatists (notably of the Moro National Liberation Front) undertook guerrilla activities intended to bring down the central government. Under martial law the president assumed extraordinary powers, including the ability to suspend the writ of habeas corpus. Marcos announced the end of martial law in January 1981, but he continued to rule in an authoritarian fashion under various constitutional formats. He won election to the newly created post of president against token opposition in June 1981.

         In 1954 Marcos married Imelda Romuáldez, the winner of a local beauty contest who held a degree in education. She became a powerful figure after the institution of martial law in 1972. She was often criticized for her appointments of relatives to lucrative governmental and industrial positions while she held the posts of governor of Metropolitan Manila (1975–86) and minister of human settlements and ecology (1979–86). Marcos and his wife had three children: daughter Imee, born in 1955, who held positions in her father’s government and was later elected to a series of political offices; son Ferdinand, Jr. (nicknamed “Bongbong”), born in 1957, who became president of the Philippines in 2022; and daughter Irene, born in 1960.

         Marcos’s later years in power were marred by rampant government corruption, economic stagnation, the steady widening of economic inequalities between the rich and the poor, and the steady growth of a communist guerrilla insurgency active in many rural areas of the Philippines.

         By 1983 Marcos’s health was beginning to fail, and opposition to his rule was growing. Hoping to present an alternative to both Marcos and the increasingly powerful New People’s Army, Benigno Aquino, Jr., returned to Manila on August 21, 1983, only to be shot dead as he stepped off the airplane. The assassination was seen as the work of the government and touched off massive antigovernment protests. An independent commission appointed by Marcos concluded in 1984 that high military officers were responsible for Aquino’s assassination.

         To reassert his mandate, Marcos called for presidential elections to be held in 1986. But Aquino’s widow, Corazon Aquino, quickly emerged as a formidable political opponent, and she became the presidential candidate of the opposition. It was widely asserted that Marcos managed to defeat Aquino and retain the presidency in the election of February 7, 1986, only through massive voting fraud on the part of his supporters. Deeply discredited at home and abroad by his dubious electoral victory, Marcos held fast to his presidency as the Philippine military split between supporters of his and of Aquino’s legitimate right to the presidency. A tense standoff that ensued between the two sides ended only when Marcos and his family fled the country on February 25, 1986, at the urging of the United States. They went into exile in Hawaii, where he died in 1989.

         Evidence emerged that during his years in power Marcos, his family, and his close associates had looted the Philippines’ economy of billions of dollars through embezzlements and other corrupt practices. Marcos and his wife were subsequently indicted by the U.S. government on racketeering charges, but in 1990 she was acquitted of all charges by a federal court. She was allowed to return to the Philippines in 1991, and in 1993 a Philippine court found her guilty of corruption (the conviction was overturned in 1998). She was also elected to multiple congressional terms, in the late 1990s and 2010s.

Achievements and Contributions of Ferdinand Marcos Sr.

         

Economic and Infrastructure Development: During his first term, Marcos made progress in agriculture, industry, and education. His administration initiated infrastructure projects, including roads, bridges, and schools, which contributed to economic development.
         

Martial Law and Governance: Marcos declared martial law in 1972, citing threats from communist insurgencies and Muslim separatists. Under martial law, his regime reduced urban crime, collected unregistered firearms, and attempted to suppress insurgencies. He also launched a land reform program and made concessions to foreign investors.
         

Cultural Identity: Marcos's presidency coincided with a period when the Philippines sought to develop an Asian cultural identity, moving away from its image as a Westernized nation. This included promoting the national language, Pilipino, and encouraging cultural expressions rooted in pre-Spanish themes.
         

Green Revolution: Under Marcos, the Philippines participated in the Green Revolution, which introduced high-yielding varieties of rice and other crops. This initiative helped increase agricultural productivity and aimed to achieve rice self-sufficiency.
         

Cultural Promotion: Marcos promoted Filipino culture and identity, encouraging the use of the national language, Pilipino, and supporting cultural expressions that emphasized Filipino heritage.
         

Land Reform: Marcos introduced land reform programs intended to redistribute land to tenant farmers. However, the implementation faced numerous challenges and criticisms for not achieving its intended goals fully.
         

Foreign Relations and Diplomacy: Marcos maintained strong alliances with the United States and other countries, securing military and economic aid. He also pursued diplomatic relations with non-traditional partners, diversifying the Philippines' foreign relations.
         

While these achievements contributed to certain areas of development, they were often overshadowed by the controversies and challenges that characterized his presidency.

Controversies

         

Authoritarian Rule and Corruption: Marcos's regime was marked by authoritarianism, with widespread corruption and suppression of democratic processes. His government faced criticism for human rights abuses and the embezzlement of billions of dollars.
         

Economic Challenges: Despite some economic growth, the Marcos era saw economic stagnation, increased inequality, and a growing communist insurgency. The country faced significant economic difficulties, including a drop in export commodity prices and heavy international borrowing.
         

Political Repression: The imposition of martial law led to the arrest of opposition politicians and suppression of dissent. This period was characterized by political repression and a lack of democratic freedoms.